The power—distance dimension is concerned with how close or how
distant subordinates feel from their superiors. This is not physical distance,
but how big the personal gap is felt to be. In a high power-distance culture
(e.g. France, India) being a boss means exerting power and keeping that
gap open. Inequality is accepted: 'a place for everyone and everyone in
their place'. So employees are frequently reluctant to express disagreement
with their bosses and prefer to work for managers who take the decisions
- and the responsibility — and then simply tell them what to do.

In a low power-distance culture (e.g. Austria, Israel) superiors and
subordinates consider each other to be colleagues, and both believe that
inequalities in society should be minimized. So those in power should
try to look less powerful than they are. Employees are seldom afraid to
disagree and expect to be consulted before decisions are made.

The uncertainty—avoidance dimension is the ease with which the cul-
ture copes with novelty. In strong uncertainty—avoidance cultures
(e.g. Japan, Greece) people feel the need for clarity and order. They
feel threatened by uncertain situations, and higher anxiety and stress are
experienced. This is combated by hard work, career stability and intoler-
ance of deviancy. Thus employees believe that company rules should not
be broken — even when it is shown to be in the company's best interest
- and look forward to continue working with the firm until they retire.
In a weak uncertainty—avoidance culture (e.g. Denmark, Hong Kong)
the uncertainty inherent in life is more easily accepted and each day is
taken as it comes. A very pragmatic view is taken about keeping or
changing those rules which are in existence, and employees expect to be
working for the firm for much shorter periods.

The individualism dimension focuses on the degree to which the
culture encourages individual as opposed to collectivist group-centred
concerns. In an individualist culture (e.g. USA, Britain) the emphasis is
on personal initiative and achievement, and everyone has the right to a
private life and opinion. By contrast, a collectivist culture (e.g. Iran, Peru)
is characterized by a tighter social framework, where people are members
of extended families or clans which protect them in exchange for loyalty.
Careen are pursued to increase standing in the family by being able to
help other members of it. The emphasis is on belonging and the aim is to be a good member - whereas in the individualist culture the ideal is to
be a good leader.

The masculinity dimension highlights 'masculine' cultures (e.g. Aus-
tralia, Italy) where performance is what counts; money and material
standards are important, ambition is the driving force. Big and fast are
beautiful; 'machismo' is sexy. In contrast, in 'feminine' cultures (e.g. the
Netherlands, Sweden) it is the quality oflife that matters: people and the
environment are important, service provides the motivation, small is
beautiful and unisex is attractive. The expected relationship of men to
women differs considerably along this dimension. In 'masculine' cultures
the sex roles are clearly differentiated. Men should be assertive, dominat-
ing; women should be caring, nurturing. In 'feminine' cultures the sex
roles are more flexible, and there is a belief in equality between the sexes.
It is not 'unmasculine' for a man to take a caring role, for example.

Long-Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation: this fifth dimension was found in a study among students in 23 countries around the world, using a questionnaire designed by Chinese scholars It can be said to deal with Virtue regardless of Truth. Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's 'face'. Both the positively and the negatively rated values of this dimension are found in the teachings of Confucius, the most influential Chinese philosopher who lived around 500 B.C.; however, the dimension also applies to countries without a Confucian heritage.